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Guarding and chasing

Keeping watch or actively approaching wildlife could cause anxiety and deterrence of wildlife.

A study from Nepal (Koirala et al. 2021) evaluated the effect of guarding and chasing occasionally, or continuously, rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) from maize and rice crops. Crop losses were approximately 90 % less in guarded plots than in controls. Detecting and chasing African elephants (Loxodonta africana) was undertaken as a community-based method to reduce crop damage in villages of the Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe (Osbron and Parker 2002). The damage on maize, groundnut, and cotton was approximately 79 % lower in villages that guarded their crops than in the control villages.

Referenced papers
Koirala, S., Garber, P. A., Somasundaram, D., Katuwal, H. B., Ren, B., Huang, C., & Li, M. (2021). Factors affecting the crop raiding behavior of wild rhesus macaques in Nepal: Implications for wildlife management. Journal of Environmental Management, 297, 113331.
Crop losses were lower in plots where rhesus macaques were guarded and occasionally chased.
Osborn, F., & Parker, G. (2002). Community-based methods to reduce crop loss to elephants: experiments in the communal lands of Zimbabwe. Pachyderm, 33, 32-38.
Crop losses were lower in villages where elephants were detected chased.